Industrial Electrician

CAREER SUMMATIVE Who is an industrial electrician? Industrial electricians install, maintain, test, troubleshoot and repair industrial electrical equipment and associated electrical and electronic controls. They are employed by electrical contractors and maintenance departments of factories, plants, mines, shipyards and other industrial establishments. Education requirements: -Completion of secondary school is usually required. -Completion of a four- or five-year industrial electrician apprenticeship program ORA combination of over five years of work experience in the trade and some high school, college or industry courses in industrial electrical equipment is usually required to be eligible for trade certification. -Trade certification for industrial electricians is compulsory. Pros: -You can have the opportunity to meet and work with a variety of people. -Since electricity is vital to virtually all aspects of today's society, it is an extremely stable career field.Cons: -There is s ome danger. Extreme caution needs to be taken when working with electricity since mistakes can potentially lead to fire or electrocution. -You may have to deal with extreme heights (for example, working on the outside of a high-rise building). Employment prospects: Average Prospect details: Your work prospects will continue to be AVERAGE because the employment growth rate will likely be close to the average.The retirement rate will likely be above average and the number of retiring workers should contribute to job openings. The number of job seekers will likely match the number of job openings. Estimated annual salary: $65,484. 00 Useful Courses: -Math -Physics -Industrial Arts (Electricity) -English -Blueprint Reading Useful experiences: -Maintenance -Construction/manufacturing -Appliance repair -Diagrams/blueprints -Troubleshooting Estimated annual salary: $65,484. 00

Cost Accounting

Publication, any stake or omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions. Leaser Type Seated by : Banyan College Printing Department Preface am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the fundamental concept of the topic.The book is self-explanatory and adopts the â€Å"Teach Yourself† style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book tried to cover all the basic topics of Software Engineering like Analysis, Project Management, Quality Testing and Designing. Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the reader for which the author shall be o bliged. I acknowledge special thanks to Mr.. Eraser Banyan, Chairman & Dry. Sandy Banyan, Director (Cad. Banyan Group of Colleges, who is the backbone and main concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation throughout this endeavor, who played an active role in coordinating the various stages of this endeavourer and spearheaded the publishing work. I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational institutions, other faculty members and the students for improvement of the quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned address.Author Theoretical QuestionQ. L What do you mean by Cost? Anus.Cost meaner account of expenditure incurred upon manufacturing of an article or providing any service.Q. 2 Q. 3 What do you understand by costing. What is meant by cost accounting. Anus. Costing is the technique and process of determining cost. Anus. Cost accounting is the provisi on of such analysis and classification of expenditure as will enable to ascertain the total cost of any particular unit of production.Q. 4 Mention name of four product for which order for cost audit is issued. Cement Industry Sugar Industry (2) (4) Electric Industry Factor Industry (3)Q. 5 Anus. (1) What is meant by supplementary cost? What is opportunity cost? Name four method of costing. Unit costing Operating costing Contract costing Process costing (2) (3) (4) Anus. Supplementary cost is the cost of product other than direct cost.Q. 6 Q. 7 Anus. The value of opportunity for gone is known as opportunity cost. Anus. (1) Explain Cost Unit? Explain term cost centre? Anus. Cost unit is a measurement of any goods or service e. G. Per ton km. Per unit. Anus. Cost centre is a location or item of any equipment which are connected with an undertaking for which cost are ascertained. Q. II Difference between costing & cost accounting. Anus. 1) Costing is a dynamic technique in which changes may take place control the cost of manufactured goods. Fore more detail:- http://www. Group. Com 2) Costing include determination of cost. Cost accounting include recording expenditure and income. (3) Costing meaner technique for determination of cost whereas cost accounting meaner adoption of accounting system of cost. Q. Al Give two items which are not include in cost. Anus. Non cost items are profit on sale of fixed asset, goodwill w/o. Discount on issue of share etc.Q. 12 What is the difference between cost of goods sold and cost of production.Anus. Cost of production meaner prime cost + works overhead + office overheard while cost of goods sold meaner cost of production + opening stock of E. G. – closing stock of finished goods.Q. 13 Write two objective of material control. Anus. (1) (2) control cost of inventory. Provide material at right time.Q. 14 What is normal wastage of material? Anus. Normal wastage of material meaner any wastage due to normal reason like evapora tion.Q. 1 5 What is abnormal wastage? Anus. Any wastage arise due to abnormal. Reason like loss by fire, loss by earthquake.Q. 16 What is BBC technique? Anus.It is a technique to control under these material classified three parts ABA & C A include high value material B include. Medium value material and C include low value material.Q. 17 What is SIT purchase. Anus. Under this quinine no stock maintain and material purchase when having its demand.Q. 18 What is economic order quantity ? Anus. Economic order quantity is that quantity of material where ordering & carrying cost minimum.Q. 19 What is meant by wages abstracts? Anus. It is a statement and it include detail of wages prepare by cost department with the help of time card, wages sheet.Q. 20 What is idle time? Anus. Idle time meaner no production hour but wages paid for that time. Fore more detail:- http://www. Group. ComQ. 21 Name the method of giving remuneration to workers. Anus. (1) (2) (3) (4) Time rate method. Piece rate method. Piece rate with guaranteed pay rate Differential piece rate method. No of cooperation x Bag No of workers 100Q. 22 How labor separation rate is computed. Anus. Labor turnover rate =Q. 23 What do you understand by time study? Anus. Time study is useful is determination of time require by an average worker in a Job.Q. 4 Write the formula of Halley-weir premium plan. AT X RATE + [30% of TTS x rate]Q. 25 What is meant by overhead?Under this clause contract price will change in proportion to change in price of material labor & other expenses.Q. 33 What is meant by retention money? Anus. In case of incomplete contract a part of the certified work is paid by the contracted to contractor. Rest of the amount is known as retention money.Q. 34 Mention the names of industries where process costing method may be used. Anus. (1) (2) (3) (4) Chemical industries Mining industries. Water & Gas Industries Electric supplyQ. 37 Define Joint product Anus. Joint product is same type of product eq ual importance & value Cost Accounting Harvard Business School 9-192-068 Rev. May 1, 1993 DO A Brief Introduction to Cost Accounting T NO Organizations and managers are almost always interested in and concerned about costs. Control of past, present, and future costs is part of every manager’s job. In companies that try to earn profits, control of costs directly affects the amount of profit earned. Knowledge of the cost of products or services is indispensable for decisions about pricing or product and service mix. In nonprofit organizations, control of costs influences the level of services that can be provided and the future survival of the organization.Cost accounting systems can be important sources of information for managers. For this reason, effective managers understand the strengths and limitations of cost accounting systems and actively participate in the evaluation and evolution of cost measurement and management systems. Unlike accounting systems that support the preparation of periodic financial reports , cost accounting systems and reports are not subject to rules or standards such as generally accepted accounting principles. Managers are permitted to exercise as much creativity and ingenuity as they wish in the quest for information on costs.As a result, there is much variety in cost accounting systems used in different companies and sometimes even in different parts of the same organization. PY CO This brief introduction to cost accounting will review the principal uses of cost data, provide some vocabulary for cost accounting, and present several of the questions managers have to answer in designing or using a cost accounting system. Its purpose is to provide the beginner with some vocabulary and ideas to use in learning about and exploring how cost management systems are designed and used by managers.While many of the references are to products and manufacturing environments, the vocabulary and concepts are equally applicable to services. Some Uses of Information About Costs I nformation about costs is used for two purposes in most organizations. Cost accounting systems provide information for evaluating the performance of an organizational unit or its manager. They also provide a means for estimating the costs of units of product or service that the organization may manufacture or provide to others. Professor William J. Bruns, Jr. prepared this note as the basis for class discussion. Copyright  © 1991 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies, call (617) 495-6117 or write the Publishing Division, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA 02163. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of Harvard Business School. 1 192-068 A Brief Introduction to Cost Accounting Performance MeasurementDO Reports on the costs incurred by part of an organiza tion—department or a division, for example—are one means by which efficiency and effectiveness can be evaluated. By comparing actual costs to those that were expected—to standard costs or budgeted costs—the degree to which costs have been controlled can be judged. Deviations from expectations—variances—can be identified, evaluated, and discussed by managers. If needed, corrective actions can be taken or expectations can be modified to incorporate previously unexpected efficiencies.Performance measurement reporting is usually periodic and systematic. Costs are assigned to parts of an organization that are identified as cost centers. When managers are held accountable for the costs incurred in a cost center, they are sometimes called responsibility centers. Performance reports provide information on the achievement of established objectives, efficiency of operations, and opportunities for cost control or cost reduction. Performance reports are used for both information and performance measurement and evaluation. T NO Product Costs and the Cost of ServicesInventory cost In manufacturing companies, product costs must be measured to determine the cost of items transferred from work-in-process to finished goods inventory. To satisfy the demands created by the cost concept used in financial reporting, a cost accounting system must measure all of the costs of the manufacturing process and assign some part of those costs to each unit of product. The costs of obtaining, maintaining, and managing the manufacturing facility need to be added to the costs of material and productive labor that each unit requires.The former costs are called indirect costs, and the latter are called direct costs. Generally accepted accounting principles require that inventory cost includes a â€Å"fair share† of total manufacturing costs, including indirect costs. In practice, there is considerable variation in how indirect costs are assigned to products. Information on costs is indispensable for analyzing the profitability of a product or product line. Product cost information allows managers to evaluate contribution margin—the difference between price and variable costs—and gross margin—the difference between price and total product costs.Information about sales, marketing, and distribution costs allows managers to evaluate the profitability of a product or product line. Without good information about costs, managers have no way to associate net income with actions or products about which they make decisions and over which they exercise control. Profitability analysis PY CO In companies that offer more than one product or service, information about costs is a key to managing the mix of products or services offered to customers or clients.With cost and profitability information, a manager can direct sales and marketing effort to the most profitable products. Unprofitable products can be eliminated, re priced, or bundled with more profitable products. The importance of product line decisions to future profitability requires confidence that product costs have been accurately determined. Product mix Although prices are determined by market forces of supply and demand, product differentiation and marketing offer many managers some degree of latitude in setting prices.Product costs and trends in product costs often provide signals to managers that prices should be changed. In particular, a change in the cost of a critical material or component may signal the need to reconsider the prices asked for products. Pricing 2 A Brief Introduction to Cost Accounting 192-068 DO Cost of service Many products require the seller to provide additional services to customers. In such cases, information about the cost of services is as important to managers as product costs.The same is true for managers of companies or organizations that provide only services. Unless the cost of service is measured, th ere is no way to know if providing the service is profitable or not and whether changes in pricing or marketing strategy are needed. Cost Behavior T NO Basic knowledge about cost behavior is a prerequisite for understanding, using, or designing cost accounting or cost management systems. The level of cost can be a function of either or both the volume of activity or time when the cost is incurred.Because prices of material, labor, and other resources change as time passes, and because time allows changes in manufacturing methods or service delivery, comparing costs at two points in time can be informative about efficiency. However, understanding the effect of changes in volume on costs is essential to measuring, analyzing, and using information about costs for both performance measurement and product costing. Relation of Costs to Volume If a company changes the amount of product or service it provides to customers or clients, its total costs will usually change as well.If more produ ct is manufactured and sold, then we should expect the higher volume to cause costs to increase. However, in many instances, the increase in costs will not be proportional to the increase in product volume. To understand why, the concepts of variable costs and fixed costs must be understood. PY CO Variable costs A cost which changes in strict proportionality with volume is called a variable cost. That is, if volume increases by 50%, a variable cost will increase in total by 50% as well. Materials used to create a product are a common example of a variable cost item.The total cost of materials to manufacture 20 units is double the cost to manufacture 10 units. Nonvariable costs A cost that does not vary at all with volume is called a nonvariable, or fixed, cost. Over time the level of a fixed cost may change, but the change is independent of the volume of activity. Building rent is usually a nonvariable cost. The rent paid is independent of the number of units of product or service p roduced in the building or the number of customers served. Nonvariable costs can often be changed by management decisions, but they do not change simply because the volume of activity changes.Semivariable costs Many costs include a combination of variable costs and nonvariable costs. The total amount of these costs varies in the same direction as volume, but less than proportionately with changes in volume. Sometimes semivariable costs can be separated into a fixed portion and a variable portion by isolating elements of the cost. The total cost of driving an automobile is semivariable with respect to the number of miles driven, but the cost of gasoline, oil, tires, and maintenance may be variable, whereas insurance and registration fees are probably fixed.Often costs are assumed to be variable when they actually are incurred in chunks. Such costs, also known as step-function costs, are fixed for a range of volume of production but change in a chunk when volume drops below or exceeds the limits of the relevant range of volume. The costs of stockroom employees are often chunky. As volume of inventory or products increases, one stockroom employee may be able to handle material and finished goods until the volume level Chunky costs 3 192-068 A Brief Introduction to Cost Accounting ncreases to the point where another employee must be added. The new staffing level will then be sufficient even as volume rises further until another â€Å"step† is reached. Chunky costs and costs that are not easily related to volume measures usually require special analysis and management. DO Accounting for Costs Classifying Costs The word cost is used many different ways in accounting and by managers. For clarity, other words are often attached to the word cost to enhance its meaning. In cost accounting, costs are usually classified into two categories: direct costs and indirect costs.Direct costs can be specifically traced to or are caused by a product, project, organizational unit, or activity. Materials specifically used in the manufacture of a product are an example of a direct cost. Labor specifically employed to provide a service would be another example. Many direct costs are variable costs, but nonvariable costs can also be direct costs if they can be traced directly to a project, organizational unit, or activity. Direct costs T NO When a cost cannot be traced directly to a single product, project, organizational unit, or activity, it is classified as an indirect cost.The rental cost of a factory building making more than one product is an indirect cost with respect to each product. There is no feasible way to associate specifically an indirect cost with an individual unit or batch of products. Indirect costs Indirect costs are included in overhead cost, or burden. To account for the full cost of manufacturing products, some portion of the overhead cost must be associated with each unit of product. The methods by which overhead costs are associate d with products or services comprise the essence of most cost accounting systems. PY COAccounting for Direct Costs A simplified cost flow chart for a manufacturing company is shown in Exhibit 1. Resources are acquired for cash or on credit and are classified as materials, payroll, or overhead. Payroll, which is classified as indirect cost, becomes part of overhead. In the production process, material, labor, and overhead cost becomes the cost of work-in-process inventory. When completed, work in process becomes finished goods and, later, cost of goods sold. It is easy to understand the accounting for direct costs such as material and productive labor.As material is converted to product by the effort of production labor, the costs of material used and labor can be associated with products. As products are completed and transferred to finished goods and cost of goods sold, these direct costs are transferred with them. All the cost accountant has to do is keep track of how much materia l and labor cost is used in producing each unit of product. (Actually, this is a little more complicated than it may sound here, but this brief description captures the essence of the accounting process for these direct costs. ) 4 A Brief Introduction to Cost Accounting 192-068Accounting for Indirect Costs DO Accounting for indirect costs is more complicated than accounting for direct costs. Costs must be collected and associated with activities before they can be assigned to products. The relationship between expenditures or costs and products or services is often far from obvious. Assignment to activities is often based on arbitrary decisions about the possible relationships between the reason for an expenditure and an activity. For example, rent for a building that houses both manufacturing and sales activities might be assigned to each activity in the same ratio as the floor space occupied by each.Then, the manufacturing rent cost may be assigned to products manufactured using a measure of volume or some other measure of effort or activity. Almost all cost accounting systems use a two-stage procedure for assigning indirect costs to products or other cost objects. First, costs are assigned to cost centers, or cost pools. Second, costs are assigned from each pool to products using cost drivers. The concept of a cost driver is based on the idea that products drive the consumption of resources. T NO The first question that the cost accounting system designer has to answer concerns how many cost centers to use.Using more cost centers than necessary adds complexity and cost to the cost accounting process itself. But using too few cost pools can create a risk that assigned costs will have little relationship to the activities and products that caused the cost to be incurred and resources to be consumed. In a manufacturing plant, the number of cost pools needed may be as small as one if machines, labor, and products are homogenous, or the number needed may be much larger if there is greater diversity in activities or products. In some manufacturing plants, each department, or even each machine, may be treated as a separate cost center. PY COThe second set of questions the cost accounting system designer has to answer concerns how to assign costs to each cost center or cost pool. Expenditures for indirect costs may be assigned based on direct labor cost, floor space, headcounts, or direct costs. More complex systems will attempt to implement as much direct charging to each cost pool as possible by using actual measures of the resources used by each cost center. The third set of questions the cost accounting system designer has to answer concerns how to assign the costs collected for each cost center to the products that are manufactured by or pass through that center.Often the costs are assigned in proportion to the use of a resource that is easily measured. Each unit product may be assigned the same proportion of indirect cost as it consumes labor time, labor cost, machine time, or material cost, for example. Given the number and complexity of choices facing the cost accounting system designer and the fact that there are no constraining â€Å"generally accepted principles of cost accounting,† it should be obvious that there is great diversity in the cost accounting systems used by different organizations.A new manager or employee has no choice but to learn about the systems the company uses before using the cost information the system has produced. Every manager has to be continually alert to be sure the cost information available is the right information for the decision or task at hand. 5 Material Inventory Payroll Other Asset and Liability Accounts Overhead PY CO Cash Acquiring Resources Cost Flow Chart for a Manufacturing Company Work-in-Process Inventory Production Finished Goods Inventory T NO Exhibit 1 192-068 Cost of Goods Sold Sale of Products DO -6- Cost Accounting Publication, any stake or omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions. Leaser Type Seated by : Banyan College Printing Department Preface am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the fundamental concept of the topic.The book is self-explanatory and adopts the â€Å"Teach Yourself† style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book tried to cover all the basic topics of Software Engineering like Analysis, Project Management, Quality Testing and Designing. Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the reader for which the author shall be o bliged. I acknowledge special thanks to Mr.. Eraser Banyan, Chairman & Dry. Sandy Banyan, Director (Cad. Banyan Group of Colleges, who is the backbone and main concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation throughout this endeavor, who played an active role in coordinating the various stages of this endeavourer and spearheaded the publishing work. I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational institutions, other faculty members and the students for improvement of the quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned address.Author Theoretical QuestionQ. L What do you mean by Cost? Anus.Cost meaner account of expenditure incurred upon manufacturing of an article or providing any service.Q. 2 Q. 3 What do you understand by costing. What is meant by cost accounting. Anus. Costing is the technique and process of determining cost. Anus. Cost accounting is the provisi on of such analysis and classification of expenditure as will enable to ascertain the total cost of any particular unit of production.Q. 4 Mention name of four product for which order for cost audit is issued. Cement Industry Sugar Industry (2) (4) Electric Industry Factor Industry (3)Q. 5 Anus. (1) What is meant by supplementary cost? What is opportunity cost? Name four method of costing. Unit costing Operating costing Contract costing Process costing (2) (3) (4) Anus. Supplementary cost is the cost of product other than direct cost.Q. 6 Q. 7 Anus. The value of opportunity for gone is known as opportunity cost. Anus. (1) Explain Cost Unit? Explain term cost centre? Anus. Cost unit is a measurement of any goods or service e. G. Per ton km. Per unit. Anus. Cost centre is a location or item of any equipment which are connected with an undertaking for which cost are ascertained. Q. II Difference between costing & cost accounting. Anus. 1) Costing is a dynamic technique in which changes may take place control the cost of manufactured goods. Fore more detail:- http://www. Group. Com 2) Costing include determination of cost. Cost accounting include recording expenditure and income. (3) Costing meaner technique for determination of cost whereas cost accounting meaner adoption of accounting system of cost. Q. Al Give two items which are not include in cost. Anus. Non cost items are profit on sale of fixed asset, goodwill w/o. Discount on issue of share etc.Q. 12 What is the difference between cost of goods sold and cost of production.Anus. Cost of production meaner prime cost + works overhead + office overheard while cost of goods sold meaner cost of production + opening stock of E. G. – closing stock of finished goods.Q. 13 Write two objective of material control. Anus. (1) (2) control cost of inventory. Provide material at right time.Q. 14 What is normal wastage of material? Anus. Normal wastage of material meaner any wastage due to normal reason like evapora tion.Q. 1 5 What is abnormal wastage? Anus. Any wastage arise due to abnormal. Reason like loss by fire, loss by earthquake.Q. 16 What is BBC technique? Anus.It is a technique to control under these material classified three parts ABA & C A include high value material B include. Medium value material and C include low value material.Q. 17 What is SIT purchase. Anus. Under this quinine no stock maintain and material purchase when having its demand.Q. 18 What is economic order quantity ? Anus. Economic order quantity is that quantity of material where ordering & carrying cost minimum.Q. 19 What is meant by wages abstracts? Anus. It is a statement and it include detail of wages prepare by cost department with the help of time card, wages sheet.Q. 20 What is idle time? Anus. Idle time meaner no production hour but wages paid for that time. Fore more detail:- http://www. Group. ComQ. 21 Name the method of giving remuneration to workers. Anus. (1) (2) (3) (4) Time rate method. Piece rate method. Piece rate with guaranteed pay rate Differential piece rate method. No of cooperation x Bag No of workers 100Q. 22 How labor separation rate is computed. Anus. Labor turnover rate =Q. 23 What do you understand by time study? Anus. Time study is useful is determination of time require by an average worker in a Job.Q. 4 Write the formula of Halley-weir premium plan. AT X RATE + [30% of TTS x rate]Q. 25 What is meant by overhead?Under this clause contract price will change in proportion to change in price of material labor & other expenses.Q. 33 What is meant by retention money? Anus. In case of incomplete contract a part of the certified work is paid by the contracted to contractor. Rest of the amount is known as retention money.Q. 34 Mention the names of industries where process costing method may be used. Anus. (1) (2) (3) (4) Chemical industries Mining industries. Water & Gas Industries Electric supplyQ. 37 Define Joint product Anus. Joint product is same type of product eq ual importance & value

Cognitive Behavior Group Therapy Model Essay - 1284 Words

Cognitive behavior group therapy is a highly structured an interactive form of psychotherapy. It is a widely used model. The cognitive behavior therapy is based on the social learning theory and characterized by many principles. The cognitive behavior group therapy model is used to treat a variety of emotional disorders. It is a problem-focused, short-term model of behavioral treatment that plays a role in helping clients understand that a person s thoughts have the ability to influence their responses regarding specific situations. The focus of the cognitive behavior therapy group is on the here and now. Hence, the overall goal of the cognitive behavior group therapy model is for the clients to attribute learned social skills to their everyday life and become their therapist. This paper will address the etiology and evolution of cognitive behavior group therapy, the population it targets, the strengths and weaknesses of the model for cognitive behavior group therapy, and the com mon consensus and conclusions concerning the use of the cognitive behavior group therapy. Introduction The cognitive behavior group therapy model is a highly structured an interactive form of psychotherapy. It is a widely used model. The cognitive behavior therapy is based on the social learning theory and characterized by many principles. It is used to treat a variety of emotional disorders. It is a problem-focused short-term model of behavioral treatment that plays a role inShow MoreRelatedCognitive Behavioral Therapy For Depression1345 Words   |  6 Pagesimportant. According to Rachman, Cognitive behavioral therapy is also successful for the uses of treating obsessive compulsive disorder and anxiety. 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Business Law Problems - 2690 Words

1. What are the four elements of a valid contract? A contract is an agreement between parties, with terms and conditions that describe the agreement that constitutes a legal obligation (All Business). A valid contract requires four elements and these are: a. Mutual agreement Ââ€" there must be a meeting of the minds between parties. There should be an offer and an acceptance. There should be an agreement to enter into the contract b. Consideration - meaning that every party is conferring a benefit on the other party or himself sustaining a recognizable detriment, such as a reduction of the partys alternative courses of action where the party would otherwise be free to act with respect to the subject matter without any limitation†¦show more content†¦Cost of contracting will be lower which will definitely impact businesses. Another impact of electronic contracting is the impact on government regulations. 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Social Analysis of Health Epidemiological Data

Question: Write about theSocial Analysis of Health for Epidemiological Data. Answer: Introduction: There is great disparity between rural and urban health status in Australia. Rural areas in Australia have been found to have high mortality rate and the main cause of this high death rate includes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, motor vehicle accident, circulatory disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The higher death rate in rural population is also explained due to difference in access to health services and remote environment of rural groups. The accessibility barrier to health service indicates clear difference in health service usage between rural and urban population of Australia. Hence, poor health outcome and high death rate is seen in remote area (particularly in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who lives in remote areas). Public level action has been implemented for improving the access to health service in rural areas and to improve health status of the residing people (impact of rurality on health status (AIHW), 2017). However, the rural-u rban health different will not be solved simply by improving the access to health services. Other social factors like stigma and discrimination needs to be considered that affect the rural group to plan effective health promotion activities for them. The essay analyzes the rural-urban health differential by means of recent Australian data and uses the Goffmans theory of stigma to explain role of stigma in health disparities and methods to address stigmatization in people living in remote areas and also improve the health outcome of people apart from addressing accessibility to health service. Overview of Epidemiological Data The difference in rural and urban health care depicts geographic characterization of public health. The past research on difference in urban and rural health care suggest factors such as difference in cost, health care access and utilization and geographic distribution of health service causing disparities in health. People residing in remote areas have been found to have higher health risk behavior, poor access to health services and health risk behavior compared to urban residents. Large disparity is seen in urban environment due to difference in socioeconomic status, psychological stressors and high level of crimes in cities. On the other hand, rural residents are less likely to engage in physical activity, they have poor diet and more prone to smoking compared to urban residents (Urban Versus Rural Health - Global Health University, 2017).Therefore, apart from physical environment, lifestyle of residents also increases disparities in health outcome globally. The global data on health outcome also proves that health inequity and difference is mostly seen in rural areas. Mostly people with extreme poverty lives in rural areas and this comprise about 70% of the world population till the year 2015. The global, national and regional data collected on the health coverage in 174 countries shows rural-urban inequities and rural deficits in health coverage. Almost 56% rural residents worldwide do not have legal health coverage. Hence, in the context of health equity, it has been found that health of rural population is not improving. The gap in health outcome is seen due to staff access deficit, employment deficit, extra health care cost and high maternal mortality ratio in this group. Although half of the world population resides in rural areas, however only 23% health staffs are deployed in these areas (Lancet, 2017). In the context of Australian population also, rural and remote population of Australia has been found to suffer from severe health outcome compared to metropolitan counterparts. Due to increase in diagnosis of severe disease, the hospitalization rate is high. This consequently contributes to higher mortality rate and lower life expectancy than expected. This also has relation with income inequality experienced by the people of rural Australia. Low income also has an impact on health and well-being of rural and remote Australian population (Lancet. (2017). While considering the population who lives in remote or rural areas, it has been found that Indigenous Australians mostly live in remote or rural areas. They are 12 times more likely to live in rural areas compared to rest of the population (Indigenous health (AIHW). (2017). The WHO report clearly indicates the vast disparities in health of Australias indigenous Aboriginals and other population. Firstly, they lag behind in health outcome due to unemployment and high imprisonment rate. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were three times more likely to unemployed compared to non-indigenous Australians (4102.0 - Australian Social Trends, 2014, 2017). The average life expectance among male is 60 years whereas the average life expectancy among female is 68 years. This life expectancy is about 17 years lower for rest of the population. The aboriginal groups, the most disadvantaged people in Australia comprise about 2.5% of the total population and they mainly suffer from diseases like pneumonia, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and others. The likelihood of contracting different diseases is also higher in indigenous population compared to non-indigenous population (WHO | Australias disturbing health disparities set Aboriginals apart, 2017). Figure 1: Difference in likelihood of disease in indigenous and non-indigenous Australians. Source: (Indigenous health (AIHW, 2017). Sociological Concepts Related to Stigma and its Impact on Rural-urban Health Differential The above discussion related to the urban-rural health difference globally and in Australia suggest that poorer health outcome in this group is seen not just due to remoteness and accessibility issues. It also occurs due to social risk present in the environment. Some of them include environmental risk, poor social behavior, stigmatization in this group due to poor educational and employment related attainment. The discussion utilizes the sociological concept and theories relayed to stigma to explain the reasons for health inequity in people residing in remote areas particularly indigenous Australians and take relevant actions in this area. This is a form of sociological imagination to understand the importance of sociology on stigma and its relevance in daily life. The analysis of different sociological theories related to stigma will help to understand the relationship between peoples personal experience and its impact on wider section of society (such as health service) (Housley e t al., 2014). The understanding of theory related to stigma and its social outcome will be an effective step to understand why rural-urban health difference cannot be addressed by improving accessibility to health service alone. Social stigma is related to the peoples experience of disapproval in society due to the origin of the person or social position in the society. Stigma is a social construction resulting from peoples perception about mental disorder, diseases, ethnicity, relationship and other social factors. Emile Durkheim was the earliest sociologist to give idea about stigma. He regarded it as a means of spoiling identity. It is based on the perception of certain traits that is thought to be deviant of social norms in society (Erikson, 2014). Erving Goffman added to the social theory of stigma by stating that three types of stigma is seen in society and these includes stigma associated with mental illness, physical deformation and stigma related to race, ethnicity and ideology. He explains that society plays a role in categorizing person and creating gap between virtual social identify and actual social identity. According to him, people can have three types of relation with stigma, either they are stigmatized or they bear the stigma. The third category is those person who sympathize with stigmatized individual (Bos et al., 2013). Therefore, on the whole, stigma is social phenomenon which arises from social relationships in society and imbued with power relations. The Goffmans theory of stigma has also been utilized as a concept in a sociological research to understand stigma in rural to urban migrants in China. They are marginalized group and the researcher used the Goffmans concept to understand stigma and its inferiors social status group. According to the Goffmans theory, stigma is a discrediting social interaction leading to social devaluation and discrimination of a person or a group. As Goffmans theory had explained difference relationship of stigma with people, the research aimed to explore the stigmatization in rural to urban migrants by investigating the perception of both the stigmatizer and the stigmatized. The overall analysis of the result showed that rural and urban migrants are stigmatized by urban residents due to their discredited place of origin, risk of diseases and crime, physical appearance and poor financial status. The stigma arise in this group of Chinese population due to social categorization of people into superior and inferior groups. The migrants were found to be resilience against stigma and urban residents legitimated stigmatization of migrants according to the hokou system. This resul reflects stigma being influence by social context and social relationship (Guan Liu, 2014). Similar analysis is also needed to understand the perception and consequence of stigma in rural residents living in Australia. The sociological concepts of stigma indicates stigma as a social construct occurring when people engage in front stage and back stage behavior. This is understood from the labeling theory of stigma, which explains how peoples behavior gives another person negative or positive label. Negative labels are given to those persons who are thought to be deviance of standard cultural norms and stigma is also one of those negative labels that changes a persons social identity (Link Phelan, 2013). In the context of addressing population health inequalities also, it is necessary to focus on removing stigma in society because stigma is also a fundamental cause of health inequality. Due to the pervasive nature of stigma, it disrupts multiple life domain of an individual such as social relationship and coping behavior and consequently have an impact on health. Stigma is also a source of social disadvantage for certain sections of society, which might be the driver for morbidity and mortality rate (Hatzenbuehler, Phelan, Link, 2013). Hence, certain ethnic group and people living in remote area are vulnerable to multiple risk factor and multiple disease outcome. Therefore, health policies and interventions must address the social factor of health inequity too. Greater attention is needed for stigma as social determinant of population health and linking stigma related pathway to health inequity. This would serve to improve health and well-being among the deprives section of the society (Link Hatzenbuehler, 2016). Labelling and stigma are derived from interrelated sociological perspective. However, Goffmans theory does not focus on social process of labeling, rather its explains the consequences of stigmatizing process for an individual. He stresses that different label given to an individual as part of stigma has the power to spoil the identity of the sufferer. In the context of addressing rural-urban health inequity, it is also necessary to consider how health of rural residents deteriorates due to experience of stigmatization (Bos et al., 2013). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are most likely to experience stigma due to their exposure to racism issue. This makes them vulnerable to psychological distress, depression, poor quality of life and substance abuse. Racism is also a form of stigma and this creates many form of disadvantage in Aboriginal and Torres Islanders life. For instance, racism contributes to inequitable access to health care resource (education, housing and emplo yment), unequal exposure to risk factors (poor nutrition), poor mental health dues stress, increased engagement in unhealthy activities, physical injury and poor motivation in life (Markwick et al., 2014). Therefore, overall ill health experience increases in indigenous Australians living in remote areas. The epidemiological data related to rural-urban health difference in Australia revealed that gap in health outcome is seen due to employment deficits, educational deficit, environmental barriers and accessibility issues. In relation to the rural population of Australia, the likelihood of diseases and mortality rate is higher than the urban population. Apart from accessibility issues, health disparity in this population group is also seen because of the experience of stigma in these group. Disease related stigma was highly associated with poor health seeking behavior in people. This is proved by a survey data in which 42% people with diagnosis of disease felt ashamed of their symptoms and was embarrassed to seek help from health professionals. This reflects the perception of the stigmatized individual and their role in contributing to gap in health outcome. This was mostly seen for mental health problems and diagnosis of depression in people (Effects of Stigma | IBHP, 2017). Therefore , people avoid seeking mental health service not because of remoteness of locatton, symptomatology and disability, but because of causal attributions of stigma. Major intervention and public health program has focused on addressing accessibility issues to improve health outcome. However, the perception of stigmatized individual from survey reveal that this action will not reap any benefits unless thoughts and behavior related to stigma is not addressed in this group. By comparing the sociological concept of Goffmans stigma theory and contribution of stigma in creating health disparities, it has been found that apart of social perception and social relationship, structural factors prevents controlling the widening gap in rural-urban health disparities. This is because health services have not focused on stigma as a determinant of health and focus is on improving accessibility issues. However, even of accessibility issues are addressed, people are not likely to visit the health care facility unless they changes their perception about mental illness. This is related to stigma occurring due to nature of disease. On the other hand stigma also occurs due to stigmatization from urban residents. Therefore, community level intervention is needed to reduce the difference in health outcome between rural and urban residents of Australia. This can be done by means of phsycoeducational intervention to changes beliefs and attitude about mental illness and depre ssion in people. Action in multiple setting is needed so that those with power make judicious decision for the health and well-being of urban residents. Periodic assessment of experiences of discrimination at population level also needs to be identified to target health interventions in the right areas and reduce the negative categorization of people in the society of the basis of power relation (Reavley Jorm, 2014). Conclusion: The main arguments raised in the essay was based on the premise that rural-urban health differences in Australia cannot be addressed by improving health service accessibility issues. The main argument raised against this was that experience of stigma also plays an important role in contributing to health disparities and research in this area is needed to improve heath outcome. The epidemiological data on urban and rural population worldwide and in Australia revealed that extreme difference in health outcome exists and rural residents are more likely to have disease than urban residents. However, with support from Goffmans theory of stigma, it was discussed that different level of stigma exist in society and this also contributes to health difference in rural and urban population. For instance, indigenous Australians health issue is exacerbated by racism experience which is also a form of stigma. Secondly, disease related stigma in rural groups minimize the health seeking behavior of people. Hence, it reflects the main concepts raised by the Goffmans theory. Therefore, intervention to widen the health outcome gap should focus on addressing stigmatization too to promote positive health outcome in rural residents. Reference 4102.0 - Australian Social Trends, 2014. (2017).Abs.gov.au. Retrieved 2 May 2017, from https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0main+features72014 Bos, A. E., Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., Stutterheim, S. E. (2013). Stigma: Advances in theory and research.Basic and Applied Social Psychology,35(1), 1-9. Bos, A. E., Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., Stutterheim, S. E. (2013). Stigma: Advances in theory and research.Basic and Applied Social Psychology,35(1), 1-9. Effects of Stigma | IBHP. (2017).Ibhpartners.org. Retrieved 3 May 2017, from https://www.ibhpartners.org/why/effects-of-stigma/ Erikson, K. T. (2014). Notes on the Sociology of Deviance.Understanding Deviance. Connecting Classical and Contemporary Perspectives, Routledge, New York Guan, J., Liu, L. (2014). Recasting Stigma as a Dialogical Concept: A Case Study of Rural?to?Urban Migrants in China.Journal of Community Applied Social Psychology,24(2), 75-85. Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G. (2013). Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities.American journal of public health,103(5), 813-821. Housley, W., Procter, R., Edwards, A., Burnap, P., Williams, M., Sloan, L., ... Greenhill, A. (2014). Big and broad social data and the sociological imagination: A collaborative response.Big Data Society,1(2), 2053951714545135. Impact of rurality on health status (AIHW). (2017).Aihw.gov.au. Retrieved 2 May 2017, from https://www.aihw.gov.au/rural-health-impact-of-rurality/ Indigenous health (AIHW). (2017).Aihw.gov.au. Retrieved 2 May 2017, from https://www.aihw.gov.au/australias-health/2014/indigenous-health/#t7 Lancet. (2017).Rural health inequities: data and decisions.Thelancet.com. Retrieved 2 May 2017, from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)60910-2/fulltext?rss=yes Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C. (2013). Labeling and stigma. InHandbook of the sociology of mental health(pp. 525-541). Springer Netherlands. Link, B., Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016). Stigma as an unrecognized determinant of population health: research and policy implications.Journal of health politics, policy and law,41(4), 653-673. Markwick, A., Ansari, Z., Sullivan, M., Parsons, L., McNeil, J. (2014). Inequalities in the social determinants of health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People: a cross-sectional population-based study in the Australian state of Victoria.International journal for equity in health,13(1), 91. Reavley, N., Jorm, A. (2014). Community and population-based interventions to reduce stigma associated with depression, anxiety and suicide: a rapid review.Accessed online,9. Urban Versus Rural Health - Global Health University. (2017).Uniteforsight.org. Retrieved 3 May 2017, from https://www.uniteforsight.org/global-health-university/urban-rural-health WHO | Australias disturbing health disparities set Aboriginals apart. (2017).Who.int. Retrieved 2 May 2017, from https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/4/08-020408/en/

The Effects of Three American Presidents Administrations on Immigrants Families

The particular features of the people’s life within the definite country depend on the effective and ineffective policies implemented by the Presidents’ administrations. Thus, everyday life of millions of people depends on the focus chosen by this or that President who is inclined to support the domestic economy or international image of the country.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Three American Presidents’ Administrations on Immigrants’ Families specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Furthermore, the effects of the Presidents’ courses can be different in relation to the life of Americans and immigrants. The members of my family immigrated to the USA from China sixteen years ago. During this period, three American Presidents influenced the life of my family significantly. Thus, a lot of changes in the everyday social life of my family are caused by the definite changes in the courses and policies of Bill Clinton, George Bush, and Barack Obama. The members of my family decided to migrate into the USA in 1997. This period was advantageous for coming to such an important decision because Bill Clinton supported the positive relations with China and revised the immigration laws. As a result, the period of Clinton’s Presidency is closely connected with the realization of Clinton’s policy goal to improve the partnership and foreign relations with China. The supported partnership was beneficial for the country, and the positive tendencies in the development of cooperation helped my uncle’s family to immigrate to the USA without significant difficulties. Being the representative of Democrats, Clinton concentrated not only on the economic and political issues but also on the realization of the social policies advantageous for the majority of population. The focus on the deficit reduction contributed to the decrease of the unemployment level that is why the adult members of my uncle’s family could find jobs easily. The associated positive feature was the ability to receive the unpaid leave up to 12 weeks regarding the family concerns according to the Family and Medical Leave Act (Benson). The first years in the USA were rather difficult for the family, and the opportunity to participate in different social programs supported the family significantly. In 2001, the family of my uncle felt comfortable living in the country and hoped for the further stabilization of the economy. The situation is changed with the beginning of George Bush’s Presidency. The terroristic attack of the September 11 influenced all the aspects of the American life. It is a rather controversial point, but the development of the war on terror influenced the development of the social life extremely.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More T he attitude to immigrants in spite of their status or skin color changed significantly. Discrimination became the result of hidden pursuing immigrants. In spite of the fact my family belongs to the Chinese minority in the USA, the negative effects of discrimination were observed vividly. The process of recession characterized the economy of the country during the period of Bush’s Presidency. The economic state of the uncle’s family became worse, and unemployment was the social problem which affected the life of my family as a lot of other families in the country. Some positive tendencies were observed when Bush focused on changing the tax policy (Rountree). The first results of the reforms affected the economic state of my family rather positively. However, the real positive changes in the social and economic status of my family are associated with the Presidency of Barack Obama. The year of 2009 became the successful year for my family, and we focused on all the refor ms and improvements connected with the Americans’ social life. Much attention was paid to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act known as the Stimulus which was developed to respond to the economic recession in the USA and to overcome the increase in unemployment rates (Klein). The members of our family participated in the housing program, and the results of the project can be discussed as positive. Moreover, the fact that Obama concentrated on ecological projects also affected my family directly because several members of the family work in this sphere. Nevertheless, the ineffective health care reform did not provide my family with the expected advantages as well as the other population of the country. It is still a problem for my family to cover the health insurance costs. The effects of policies implemented by three American presidents on the family of Chinese immigrants are significant because any reforms associated with the economic or social life influenced the pers onal life of the family members significantly. It is important to note that the most positive conditions for the development and progress are typical for the Presidency of Bill Clinton and Barack Obama when the Presidency of George Bush is closely associated with the period of recession in the economy and social life. The life of each family is based on the political changes in the country because political leaders are inclined to follow different courses and change the aspects of the social and economic life of millions of people. Works Cited Benson, Michael. Bill Clinton. USA: Twenty-First Century Books, 2003. Print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Three American Presidents’ Administrations on Immigrants’ Families specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Klein, Edward. The Amateur: Barack Obama in the White House. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2012. Print. Rountree, Clarke. George W. Bush: A Bi ography. USA: ABC-CLIO, 2010. Print. This essay on The Effects of Three American Presidents’ Administrations on Immigrants’ Families was written and submitted by user Aleigha Nunez to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.