Colonization Across the Globe Essay -- Colonies World History Economy

Colonization Across the Globe After Christopher Columbus landed in the West Indies in 1492, Spain and Portugal started disputing areas of influence on the South American continent. The dispute was eventually settled by the Pope (Alexander VI), who in 1493, drew up defined areas of influence for the two nations with the idea of spreading Christianity to the natives in those territories. In time the Portuguese territory became known as Brazil, hence the working language of that country to this day is Portuguese, while most of the rest of the continent speaks Spanish. On 1 August 1498, during his third voyage, Columbus finally sighted the South American mainland for the first time. The next white explorer to reach the continent was the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral, who anchored off the coast of present day Brazil in April 1500 - a territory which he then claimed for Portugal. However, the claim was ignored for more than 30 years by Portugal itself, whose sailors had in the interim sailed round Africa to India. During this time of Portuguese indifference, the Spanish seized the initiative in Central America and the West Indies. In 1519, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, then employed by the Spaniards, first sailed up the Rio de la Plata River. He then proceeded south and in November 1520, first sailed round the southernmost part of South America and sighted the Pacific Ocean. 1. Spain In 1519, Cortes with about 600 men set sail for South America with a few cannon and horses. A last minute dispute with the Spanish governor saw Cortes' expedition being officially cancelled, but Cortes continued, later bringing back gold and other riches to the Spanish crown as justification for his expedition. The army sailed west along the Gulf Coast, engaging in a major battle against a local tribe. It was at this first battle that Cortes realized the technological advantage the Europeans possessed: steel armour, guns, cannons and even horses were completely unknown to the people of Central America, and many tribesmen fled at the very sight of a powerful charge horse. These advantages were pressed home remorselessly, and all the native tribes in Central and South America were to pay dearly for being technologically so far behind the Europeans. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Central America, the Aztecs had created an empire which... ...ess Cixi. The terrorist activities of the Boxer society gradually increased during 1899, with Boxer bands attacking all whites on sight. When these bands entered the Chinese capital, Peking, the whites powers sent a small armed column to the Chinese capital to protect the few whites in the city. On 16 June 1900, the Empress Cixi ordered Chinese troops to attack the whites army which was still outside Peking. Then on 18 June 1900, the Empress Cixi publicly called on the Chinese to kill all the whites they could find. Many whites were then murdered: large numbers fled into the fortified foreign embassies in the city. There they were besieged by Chinese. Finally, a combined army consisting of British, French, Russian, German, American and Japanese troops entered Peking on 14 August 1900, relieving the besieged foreign embassies. Peking was then occupied by the whites powers for a year until September 1901, when the Chinese signed a peace treaty in terms of which they had to pay a large indemnity and grant the whites powers the right to station troops in Peking to safeguard the embassies. This situation remained unaltered right up until the early part of the 20th century.

Systems Model; Critique

Critique the relevance of the systems model to the study of politics Models, theories and concepts as approaches for analysing policy and decision making have been developed by political and social scientists to guide the study of public policy, to facilitate communication and to suggest possible explanations for policy actions. This essay is a critique of the relevance of the systems model to the study of politics. A model is conceptually defined as a theoretical representation of empirical data that aims to advance understanding through highlighting of significant relationships and interactions. According to Heywood (2007) one of the most influential models in political analysis is the Political system model developed by David Easton (1979, 1981) which aims to explain the entire political process including the functions of the major political actors through what is called systems analysis. A system is an organised and complex whole, a set of interrelated and interdependent parts that form a collective entity. Roskin, Cord, Medeiros & Jones (1997) concur that in the political systems model the politics of a given country worked the same way as a biological system. Here they were trying to emphasise the interrelationships and inter dependence likening it to the biological human body; how the various organs needed or related to each other and likening this to the political system. Systems theory is therefore the theory that treats the political system as a self regulating mechanism responding to inputs (demands and supports) by issuing authoritative decisions or outputs (policies). David Easton’s model illustrated the existence of a linkage between inputs and outputs in a political system(Heywood, 2007). Inputs consist of demands and support from the general public and demands in a political system range from pressure for the need of a higher standard of living, improved employment opportunities, greater protection to minorities, improved social benefits among many. Support on the other hand includes ways in which the public responds to the political system that is by paying taxes, offering compliance to the state through participation in public life and other societal issues. Heywood (ibid) further asserts that outputs on the other and are in the form of laws promulgated by government, consisting of decisions and actions of government that is the passing of laws, the imposition of taxes and most importantly allocation of public funds. The outputs generate feedback which consist of further demands and support from the general public. Further Easton referred to what he called gatekeepers being political parties, church organisations, pressure groups which gatekeepers manage the percep tion of the people and convey their inputs in the form of demands and supports. Outputs from government go back to the people and the cycle goes on and on. He projected that a political system tends to operate at equilibrium as its survival depends on outputs being brought into line with inputs. However, according to Anderson (1997) the usefulness of the systems theory in studying public policy is limited by its highly general and abstract nature. Older studies have devoted little attention to the nature and definition of public problems. It is now conventional wisdom that policy study that does not consider the characteristics and dimensions of the problems that stimulate government action is less than complete. In Easton’s model there is no clarity on the inputs which are the problems of the public. It gives a general picture of society. The importance lies in knowing both why some problems are acted on and others are neglected and why a problem is defined in one way rather than another. It is also important to know the nature of the problem whether it is foreign or domestic, a new item or an outgrowth of an existing policy to determine the ensuing policy making process, issues that the systems model is silent on. According to Jackson & Jackson (2003) the basic argument of systems analysis is that governments are the centre of political systems which involves three stages mainly the effects of the environment on a political system by making multiple demands, as well as providing fundamental support. A demand can be defined as a condition or situation that produces needs or dissatisfaction among people for which relief or redress is sought. For example problems such as air pollution, unwholesome food, abortion, urban congestion, crowded prisons and global warming are conditions that may become problems if they produce sufficient anxiety or dissatisfaction to cause people to seek a remedy. For this to happen people must have some criterion or standard by which the troubling condition is judged to be both unreasonable or unacceptable and appropriate for government to handle Anderson (1997). Conditions do not become public problems unless they are defined as such, articulated by someone or defined as such. The systems model therefore does not explore these highlighted problems. According to Jackson & Jackson (ibid) the systems analysis is criticised often arguing that the model on which it is based does not help discern which part of a political system are essential or influential. It is further argued that it is impossible to predict how or even whether a change in one part of the system will affect another part. Furthermore political systems are not as closely related as the model implies. Political systems are not as static as the model implies Another criticism of the systems theory is that it does not acknowledge the changes that occur with time. According to Roskin (et al) systems change over time with the rise of new powers, new technologies and new alliances. It does not even recognise the existence of bigger entities with many components for example countries or groups of countries that interact with each other forming international systems. To some the fall of the Soviet empire in the 1990’s marked the end of the cold war and the bipolar system. But some argue that the bipolar system did not end with the collapse of the Soviet Union, but rather a multi polar economics race emerged. As Moscow gave up the East European nations and no longer posed any invasion threat to Western Europe which moved closer to unity in the European Union (EU). All barriers among the fifteen members disappeared, producing a single economy if not a single political entity. The United States on the other hand had some economic problems, massive trade deficits following massive budget deficits making it the biggest debtor. It could no longer call the tune and get alliance from allies in Europe and Asia. Countries of the Eastern bloc consolidated their political system significantly. The systems model is limited in this sense in that its diagrammatic representation is only limited to small entities. According to Anderson (ibid) a condition to be turned into a problem, must be seen as an appropriate topic for governmental action and further, as something for which there is a possible governmental remedy or solution. The systems model does not articulate the inputs fed into gate keepers, neither does it clarify the difference between conditions and problems. Those who oppose government action to ban smoking in public places may argue that tobacco smoke is not harmful, or that smoke is a matter of individual choice and should not be regulated. Professor Wildavsky contends that officials are unlikely to deal with a problem unless it is coupled with a solution. He thus, states that ‘a problem is a problem only if something can be done about it’,(Anderson, ibid). Thus in Easton’s model there is no emphasis on the nature of the inputs. Power distribution in the systems model is not adequately explored in the graphical representation. In today’s world for example the American system, political power is fragmented and dispersed by constitutional prescription and political practice. Many points of official decision making exist and a multitude of officials share in the exercise of political power and the formulation of public policy. Structural functionalism focuses on the different levels of a system and their reciprocal influences and also the possibility of making generalisations about them. It is premised on what structures perform what functions in any given system and under what conditions. Key proponent Almond (1960) critically examined Easton’s model and proceeded to look for the functions that could be included among the inputs and outputs of a political system and identified six functions. Chief among these functions is interest articulation, interest aggregation, rule application and adjudication and communication. Political systems consist of units or structures that perform certain or particular functions. The detailed variables with which the model is concerned are structural that is pressure groups, political parties, the legislature among many. Political systems are compared on the basis of the functions that are performed by their units. However, according to Jackson &Jackson (ibid), the structural functional approach does not accommodate itself well to the state as a dynamic entity. The mechanical role of performing functions is assigned to the state. It ignores the human element that those who perform functions of the state may have their own interests. Some critics even argue that structural functional approach places too much emphasis on technology and rational procedures and obscures the relationship between structures and functions. Almond seems to contend that all systems must evolve in the same manner and direction as did the Anglo American Democracies if they wish to develop to higher political stages. David Easton’s model of a political system is the basis of most contemporary political systems. But however, it is only ideal as there are constant changes that occur in the society we live in, therefore an equilibrium can never be achieved. It forms a basis of analysis upon which scientific generalisations can be made. REFERENCE Anderson, J. E. Public policy making; An introduction (3rd edition). Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston Heywood, A. (2007). Politics (3rd edition). Palgrave Macmillan: New York Jackson, R. J. & Jackson, D. (2003). An introduction to political science. Prentice Hall: Toronto Roskin, M, Cord, R. L, Medeiros, J. A, & Jones, W. S. (1997). Political science; an introduction (6th edition). Prentice Hall International (UK) Limited: London

Vark: Educational Psychology and Learning Styles

VARK Analysis Grand Canyon University VARK Analysis VARK refers to a specific style of learning, visual, auditory, reading and writing and kinesthetic leaners. (Fleming & Mills, 1992) VARK assessment questions alert people to the variety of different approaches to learning. (VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles, 2011) For those struggling with learning the VARK analysis can develop a new learning approach or enhance your current learning style by identifying your learning style to more effectively store and recall information. Knowing our own learning style also can help you to realize that other people may approach the situation different from your own. (Connor, 2009) â€Å"Everyone has a certain amount of each learning style, but one learning type will be more dominant that than other. †(Smith, 2011) Throughout our journey of childhood education we are introduced to kinesthetic learning in the early years, JR high visual and read and write and higher learners experience more auditory. (Smith, 2011) Each individual is exposed to different learning approaches however we develop a preference to a specific learning style. Whichever type a person is, will be how they view life and comprehend situations. This is their own, unique personal filtering system. Obviously each of us will become automatically drawn to our same type, and those who filter the same information the way we do. But having diverse relationships will increase our own happiness throughout our lives† (Smith, 2011) â€Å"VARK is a bout learning, not leisure activities. The read/write learners prefer information displayed as words. This learning style emphasizes text based-input and output. People who prefer this modality are often addicted to Power Points, the internet, lists diaries and words, words, words. †(VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles, 2011) Upon taking this test, it reinforced the learning strategies I currently utilize the read and write learning preference. Read and write learners need writing materials to take down points the think are important from what the read, hear and see. (Smith, 2011) The advantage for read write learners they are very independent with learning and can self-teach. A disadvantage to this style of learning preference if a presentation is audio or visual with no opportunities to take notes, this type of learner will struggle with comprehending the content. With a presentation that is more visual and audio, the read write learner must convert this content to a style of words in their head that will help them commit this to memory. (VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles, 2011) Read and Write learners prefer to take information by making list, headings or utilizing book, handouts, essays and manuals. To make their intake of information a learnable package a read and write learner must convert their â€Å"notes† by 3:1 for studying. † (VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles, 2011) These read/write learner to utilize the information they gather often organizes their written words into diagrams, graphs, charts and read their notes and rewrite the principals into other words. The successful output of this information is when they can perform well on a test or assignment. VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles, 2011) Completing the VARK analysis at the beginning of my BSN program reinforced the strengths of my read write learning preference. This learning preference style analysis also gave suggestions if a read and write learner is put in a situation where they must utilize the other learning styles. The suggestion to convert that information into the preferred â€Å"word† method read/ write learners like is an excellent suggestion rather than focusing on the fact one is uncomfortable with the presentation of the material in a non-preferred learning method. University Education is ideal for a read and write learner due to the comfort of reading text, writing notes and essays. † (VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles, 2011) This style learning preference does well with self-teach /learning which a benefit in the online classroom environment. The challenge a read/ write learner might face in the online classroom is the need to l isten to online tutorials, this is a time they would need to convert the information into a preferred â€Å"word† method to process the needed information in a way they better comprehend. The read write learner has a â€Å"AH HA’ moment which is the point the words they intake help them comprehend the topic and process the information long term. (Smith, 2011) References Connor, M. (2009). Ageless Learners: What’s your Learning Style? Retrieved January 20, 2012, from http://agelesslearner. com/assess/learningstyle. html Fleming, N. , & Mills, C. (1992). Helping Students Understand How They Learn [Journal]. The Teaching Professor, 7(). Retrieved from www. vark-learn. com Smith, C. (2011, June). Understanding Every Personality Type: Audio, Visual and Kinesthetic [Discussion Group comment]. Retrieved from http://applecsmith. hubpages. com/hub/Being-Successful-With-Every-Personality-Type-Audio-Visual-Kinesthetic Smith, D. (2011, June 26). Advantages and Disadvantages to different learning styles [Discussion Group comment]. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/info_8651838_advantages-disadvantages-different-learning-styles. html VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles. (2011). www. vark-learn. com